Explanations

To explain why a metal rod expanded when heated, a deductive-nomological explanation would subsume this event under a general physical law. It would state that according to the law of thermal expansion, metals expand when their temperature increases. Given the initial condition that the rod was heated, it logically follows from this general law that the rod would expand.
When explaining why a forest fire occurred, a causal explanation would focus on identifying the specific causes that led to the fire. For instance, it might point out that a prolonged drought had made the forest exceptionally dry, creating highly flammable conditions.
A statistical explanation of why a certain person caught the flu during an outbreak might highlight the high probability of contracting the virus under the given conditions. If statistical data shows that 60% of people exposed to the flu virus in a crowded area develop the illness, and the person in question was frequently in such environments during the outbreak, the explanation lies in the high probability derived from statistical laws.

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What common categories and definitions of “explanation” have philosophers introduced?

Common Categories and Definitions of “Explanation” in Philosophy

Philosophers have developed various categories and definitions of “explanation” to understand how and why phenomena occur. Here are some of the common categories and their definitions:

1. Causal Explanation

Definition: Causal explanations describe events in terms of their causes. They explain an event by citing preceding events or conditions that brought it about.
Example: Explaining why a glass broke by citing that it was dropped on the floor.

2. Deductive-Nomological (D-N) Explanation

Definition: Proposed by Carl Hempel and Paul Oppenheim, this model explains events by subsuming them under general laws and showing that the event follows logically from these laws and initial conditions.
Example: Explaining the trajectory of a projectile by using the laws of physics and initial conditions such as angle, velocity, and air resistance.

3. Statistical Explanation

Definition: Also known as inductive-statistical (I-S) explanation, it involves showing that the event to be explained was highly probable, given certain statistical laws and initial conditions.
Example: Explaining why a certain individual got sick during a flu outbreak by citing the high probability of contracting the flu given the presence of the virus in the population.

4. Teleological Explanation

Definition: These explanations account for events in terms of their purposes or goals. They are often used in biological and social sciences to explain behavior and functions.
Example: Explaining why birds migrate by citing their goal of reaching warmer climates to find food and reproduce.

5. Functional Explanation

Definition: Functional explanations are used to describe why something exists by referencing the role or function it serves within a system.
Example: Explaining the presence of the heart in an organism by its function of pumping blood to circulate nutrients and oxygen throughout the body.

6. Explanatory Unification

Definition: This approach, advocated by philosophers like Philip Kitcher, suggests that explanations work by unifying diverse phenomena under a common framework or theory.
Example: Explaining different natural phenomena (e.g., falling objects, planetary orbits) using the laws of Newtonian mechanics.

7. Pragmatic Explanation

Definition: Pragmatic explanations focus on the context and purpose of the explanation, considering the interests and background knowledge of the audience.
Example: Explaining the same scientific concept differently to a group of experts compared to a classroom of high school students.

8. Mechanistic Explanation

Definition: Mechanistic explanations involve detailing the mechanisms or processes that lead to a particular outcome, often used in biological and cognitive sciences.
Example: Explaining muscle contraction by describing the biochemical interactions between actin and myosin filaments.

9. Narrative Explanation

Definition: Narrative explanations use storytelling to make sense of events, often used in history and social sciences.
Example: Explaining the causes of a historical event like the French Revolution through a narrative that includes economic, social, and political factors.

Summary

These categories illustrate the diversity of approaches to explanation in philosophy, each suited to different types of questions and disciplines. Understanding these categories helps in analyzing how explanations function and how they can be evaluated for their adequacy in various contexts.

Philosophers have been wrestling with the concept of explanation for centuries, offering various categories and definitions. Here are some of the common ones:

Causal explanations: These explanations focus on identifying the cause-and-effect relationships that underlie a phenomenon. For example, explaining why a window shattered might involve mentioning a thrown rock as the cause. This type of explanation has roots in Aristotle’s work.
Law-based explanations: Also known as deductive-nomological explanations, these explanations connect the phenomenon to general laws or principles. So, explaining the shattered window could involve citing the law that objects fall when dropped. This approach gained prominence with philosophers like Carl Hempel.
Functional explanations: Here, the explanation focuses on the function or purpose of something. Why does the heart beat? Because it functions to pump blood. This type of explanation is particularly relevant in biology and psychology.
Historical explanations: These explanations delve into the historical context or sequence of events that led to a phenomenon. Understanding the rise of fascism in Europe might involve tracing historical events and ideologies.
Reductive explanations: These explanations aim to explain a phenomenon by breaking it down into its more fundamental components. For instance, explaining a headache in terms of brain chemistry is a reductive approach.

These are just some of the major categories. Philosophers also debate what makes a good explanation. Is it simply identifying the cause? Should it connect to broader laws? These are ongoing discussions in the field of philosophy of science and beyond.

Philosophers have introduced several categories and definitions of “explanation”. Here are some of the most common ones:

Causal Explanation: This form of explanation is associated with causation. To explain an event or phenomenon is to identify its cause ¹.
Deductive-Nomological Explanation: This involves subsuming the explanandum under a generalization from which it may be derived in a deductive argument ². For example, “All gases expand when heated; this gas was heated; therefore, this gas expanded”².
Statistical Explanation: This involves subsuming the explanandum under a generalization that gives it inductive support ². For example, “Most people who use tobacco contract cancer; this person used tobacco; therefore, this person contracted cancer”².
Realist Interpretation of Explanation: This holds that the entities or processes an explanation posits actually exist. The explanation is a literal description of external reality ¹.
Epistemic Interpretation of Explanation: This holds that such entities or processes do not necessarily exist in any literal sense but are simply useful for organizing human experience and the results of scientific experiments ¹.
Ordinary Language Philosophy: This stresses the communicative or linguistic aspect of an explanation, its utility in answering questions and furthering understanding between two individuals ¹.
Cognitive Science Approach: This maintains that explaining is a purely cognitive activity and that an explanation is a certain kind of mental representation that results from or aids in this activity ¹.

These categories and definitions have evolved over time and continue to be subjects of philosophical debate ¹ ³ ⁴.

For each of the following types of explanation, provide a paragraph exemplifying the explanation type in action.

Causal Explanation: Describes events in terms of their causes, citing preceding events or conditions that brought them about.
Deductive-Nomological (D-N) Explanation: Explains events by subsuming them under general laws and showing that the event follows logically from these laws and initial conditions.
Statistical Explanation: Involves showing that the event to be explained was highly probable given certain statistical laws and initial conditions.
Teleological Explanation: Accounts for events in terms of their purposes or goals, often used in biological and social sciences.
Functional Explanation: Describes why something exists by referencing the role or function it serves within a system.
Explanatory Unification: Suggests that explanations work by unifying diverse phenomena under a common framework or theory.
Pragmatic Explanation: Focuses on the context and purpose of the explanation, considering the interests and background knowledge of the audience.
Mechanistic Explanation: Involves detailing the mechanisms or processes that lead to a particular outcome, often used in biological and cognitive sciences.
Narrative Explanation: Uses storytelling to make sense of events, often employed in history and social sciences.

Examples of Different Types of Explanation

Causal Explanation

When explaining why a forest fire occurred, a causal explanation would focus on identifying the specific causes that led to the fire. For instance, it might point out that a prolonged drought had made the forest exceptionally dry, creating highly flammable conditions. Additionally, a lightning strike or a discarded cigarette might be identified as the immediate cause that ignited the fire, leading to the widespread destruction observed.

Deductive-Nomological (D-N) Explanation

To explain why a metal rod expanded when heated, a deductive-nomological explanation would subsume this event under a general physical law. It would state that according to the law of thermal expansion, metals expand when their temperature increases. Given the initial condition that the rod was heated, it logically follows from this general law that the rod would expand. Thus, the expansion is explained by showing it to be a logical consequence of a known physical law and the specific condition of heating.

Statistical Explanation

A statistical explanation of why a certain person caught the flu during an outbreak might highlight the high probability of contracting the virus under the given conditions. If statistical data shows that 60% of people exposed to the flu virus in a crowded area develop the illness, and the person in question was frequently in such environments during the outbreak, the explanation lies in the high probability derived from statistical laws. This makes the event of catching the flu highly likely given the initial conditions and statistical context.

Teleological Explanation

In explaining why birds migrate south for the winter, a teleological explanation would focus on the purpose or goal of this behavior. Birds migrate to warmer climates during winter to find more abundant food sources and suitable breeding conditions. The explanation emphasizes that this migration behavior serves the purpose of ensuring the birds’ survival and reproductive success, highlighting the goal-oriented nature of the phenomenon.

Functional Explanation

A functional explanation for the presence of chlorophyll in plants would describe its role in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll exists in plants because it plays a crucial role in capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis. This function is essential for the plant’s ability to produce food and sustain itself, thus explaining why chlorophyll is present.

Explanatory Unification

To explain a variety of electrical phenomena, an explanatory unification approach would use the theory of electromagnetism. This theory unifies the behavior of electric currents, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic waves under a single framework. By applying the principles of electromagnetism, one can explain how electric currents produce magnetic fields, how changing magnetic fields induce currents, and how electromagnetic waves propagate, providing a coherent and unified explanation for diverse phenomena.

Pragmatic Explanation

When explaining the concept of natural selection to a general audience, a pragmatic explanation might tailor the explanation to the audience’s background knowledge and interests. For example, it could use simple language and relatable examples, such as explaining how certain traits in animals, like camouflage in chameleons, increase their chances of survival and reproduction. This approach ensures the explanation is accessible and engaging to the audience.

Mechanistic Explanation

A mechanistic explanation of how the human heart pumps blood would detail the processes involved. It would describe how the heart’s muscular walls contract, creating pressure that forces blood out of the heart and into the arteries. The explanation would include the role of the heart’s valves in preventing backflow and the coordinated contraction of the atria and ventricles, providing a detailed account of the mechanisms that result in the effective circulation of blood.

Narrative Explanation

To explain the causes of the French Revolution, a narrative explanation might weave together a story that includes various social, economic, and political factors. It could describe the increasing discontent among the common people due to heavy taxation and food shortages, the influence of Enlightenment ideas promoting equality and liberty, and the financial crisis faced by the French monarchy. By presenting these factors in a coherent narrative, the explanation provides a comprehensive understanding of how these interconnected events led to the revolution.

Types of Explanations in Action:

Causal Explanation: The sudden downpour can be explained by the storm clouds that gathered over the mountains earlier today. These clouds, filled with condensed water vapor, reached a point where they could no longer hold the moisture, causing the rain to fall.

Deductive-Nomological (D-N) Explanation: The brakes failed on the car because the brake pads were worn thin. This caused a reduction in friction needed to slow the car down, which is a principle of physics – the greater the friction, the greater the stopping force.

Statistical Explanation: Traffic accidents are more likely to occur during rush hour due to the increased volume of vehicles on the road. Statistics show a correlation between higher traffic density and a higher probability of collisions.

Teleological Explanation: Birds develop wings for the purpose of flight. This allows them to escape predators, migrate to better environments, and access food sources unreachable on the ground.

Functional Explanation: Eyes are a functional part of the human body, allowing us to see and navigate our surroundings. This ability is crucial for survival and interaction with the world.

Explanatory Unification: The theory of evolution by natural selection unifies diverse observations in biology. It explains the development of different species, antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and camouflage in animals under a single framework – the survival and reproduction of traits most beneficial in a given environment.

Pragmatic Explanation: Explaining photosynthesis to a child might involve comparing it to a plant “eating sunlight” rather than going into the complex chemical reactions involved. This simpler explanation caters to the child’s understanding level and helps them grasp the basic concept.

Mechanistic Explanation: Learning and memory involve complex processes in the brain. New information triggers neuron connections to strengthen, creating pathways for memory storage and retrieval. This is the mechanism behind how we learn and remember things.

Narrative Explanation: The American Civil War can be explained by a narrative of rising tensions between northern and southern states over issues like slavery and states’ rights. This narrative helps us understand the historical context and events that led to the war.

Sure, here are examples of each type of explanation:

Causal Explanation: The apple fell from the tree because the wind shook the branch, causing the apple to lose its grip and succumb to gravity.
Deductive-Nomological (D-N) Explanation: All objects in a vacuum fall at the same rate regardless of their mass. A feather and a hammer are dropped in a vacuum. Therefore, they fall at the same rate.
Statistical Explanation: Given that 80% of smokers develop lung cancer, and John is a smoker, it is highly probable that John will develop lung cancer.
Teleological Explanation: Birds have wings because they need them to fly, which is essential for their survival and reproduction.
Functional Explanation: The heart exists in an organism because it serves the function of pumping blood, which is necessary for the distribution of nutrients and oxygen.
Explanatory Unification: The theory of evolution by natural selection unifies diverse phenomena such as the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, the shape of a bird’s beak, and the pattern of human migration, under a common framework.
Pragmatic Explanation: A teacher explains the concept of photosynthesis to a group of students by relating it to a process they are familiar with, like baking a cake, considering their background knowledge and interests.
Mechanistic Explanation: The process of digestion involves the mechanical breakdown of food in the mouth, the chemical breakdown in the stomach, and the absorption of nutrients in the intestines, leading to the outcome of nutrient distribution to the body.
Narrative Explanation: The American Revolution can be understood as a story of British colonists who, feeling unfairly treated by their home government, rallied around powerful ideas and fought for independence.